DESCRIPTORS: self-determination, culturally competent teachers, best practice, the Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction, problem-solving competencies.
SYNOPSIS: The author describes the problem of facilitating the development of self-determination and critical problem-solving skills in students with disabilities and shows best practices in the field. She concludes with the idea that self-determination instruction empowers students with disabilities by teaching them how to problem solve, set/achieve goals, and take ownership of learning.

Throughout history, the rights of individuals with disabilities to be heard have been unrecognized or overlooked. Long into the 20th century, it was still a common practice for others to make decisions about their interests. In 1972, Nirje emphasized that self-determination should be an entitled right for individuals with disabilities (Ward, 2005). In order to foster these behaviors in students with disabilities, schools, teachers, and parents must work together to help them learn the skills that lead to self-determination and problem solving (Glago, 2005). In order to make good choices and decisions, students with disabilities need autonomous experiences (i.e., advocate for him or herself) that facilitate the development of self-determination and critical problem-solving skills. However, they require specific instruction related to self-determination with opportunities to practice the component skills (Agran & Wehmeyer, 2005; Grigal, Neubert, Moon, & Graham, 2003). Students with disabilities who exit the school environment with self-determination skills are more successful in inclusive environments.

Self-Determination Defined

Self-determination has been defined as possessing the skills that support students in maintaining personal control, knowing one’s strengths and areas of needs, assessing one’s environment, and motivation (Zhang & Benz, 2006). A self-determined student makes choices, indicates what he or she wants, and is not led by others (Wehmeyer, Shogren, Smith, Zager, & Simpson, 2010). Palmer and Wehmeyer (2002, p. 1) noted, “Self-determination provides a framework for a lifelong pursuit of individually determined abilities and outcomes. For young children, self-determination relates to the interests, choices, decisions, and problems that are solved, usually with adult support.” Agran and Krupp (2011, p. 565) noted “Self-determination refers to strategies that enable individuals to regulate their own behavior, independent of external control, and allow them to have control over choices, and decisions that impact their lives (e.g., where and how they want to work, where they live).” Self-determination behaviors enable children with disabilities to: (1) act autonomously, (2) self-regulate, (3) self-initiate, and (4) act in a self-realizing manner (Wehmeyer, Agran, & Hughes, 1998).

Self-Determination and Best Practice

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEIA, 2004) and No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB, P.L. 107-110) mandate that instruction for a student with a disability is grounded in evidence-based practices (Cook, Browning-Wright, Mayer, & Wallace, 2008). The development of self-determination is a best practice for children with disabilities in the United States, as noted in the 2003 President’s Commission on Excellence in Special Education Report (Wehmeyer, Gragoudas & Shogren, 2006). State and local instructional content standards incorporate objectives linked to the advancement of skill components of self-determination in students with disabilities (Wehmeyer et al., 2006). The skill components of self-determination comprise: choice making, decision-making, problem solving, goal setting, self-awareness, self-instruction, self-knowledge, and self-evaluation (Wehmeyer et al., 2006). 

As teachers assist students with disabilities in developing self-determination behaviors, parents play critical roles in their sons’ and daughters’ development. Therefore, a teacher must demonstrate cultural sensitivity, taking into account the key people in the life of the child with a disability. While self-determination behaviors are valued in some cultures, promotion of these should encompass student culture, direction, and importance relative to family values (Frankland, Turnbull, Wehmeyer, & Blackmountain, 2004; Zhang, 2005).

Teachers need to identify the key people in the lives of students’ with disabilities since differences in culture and ethnicity affect parents’ facilitation of self-determination behaviors and the goals emphasized at home. Geenen, Powers, and Lopez-Vasquez (2001) found that African-American, Hispanic American, and Native-American parents stressed family cultures and values, and culturally linguistically diverse parents stressed their children’s independence (Zhang, 2005). Culturally competent teachers are successful in supporting and meeting the diverse needs of students and families.

Self-Determination Instruction

In the United States, special education legislation necessitates the development of strategies to advance self-determination in students with disabilities (Konrad, Trela, & Test, 2006). Instruction needs to start in elementary grades since self-determination skills develop cumulatively across a child’s lifetime resulting in a young adult becoming the causal agent in his or her own life (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2009; Wehman, 2006; Wehmeyer et al., 2010). Life experiences and education contribute to the development of self-determination in students with disabilities (Wehman, 2006). These students benefit from instructional opportunities to practice problem solving, make choices and experience the results of their decisions.

“The Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction (SDLMI) is a model of teaching designed to enable teachers to teach students to become self-regulated problem solvers, to self-direct instruction toward self-selected goals, and to gain enhanced self-determination” (Agran, Blanchard, & Wehmeyer, 2000, p. 353). The SDLMI is used to teach students the steps of problem solving in order to reach goals. Instruction includes teacher modeling and cueing as students with disabilities learn to: (a) set goals, (b) self-evaluate, and (c) self-instruct. Using three phases a teacher presents students with problems to solve. The teacher guides students in identifying goals, developing action plans, and making needed changes (Wehmeyer et al., 2000). The teacher facilitates students in problem-solving decisions about their education, thinking aloud their decisions, and modeling the risks and benefits of each solution. The SDLMI has facilitated students’ success (e.g., academic performance) to meet general education standards in inclusive settings (Agran, Cavin, Wehmeyer, & Palmer, 2006).

A thoughtful teacher scaffolds instruction targeting students’ zone of proximal development to promote acquisition, mastery, maintenance, and generalization of self-determination skills. Students who generalize self-determination skills possess tools that help them meet the unique needs of classroom, home and community environments. Additionally, the generalization of self-determination skills helps students reduce dependence on teachers or other adults (Palmer & Wehmeyer, 2003).

Conclusion

As teachers infuse self-determination instruction into curricula, students with disabilities develop problem-solving competencies that contribute to self-determination (Glago, 2005). Self-determination instruction empowers students with disabilities by teaching them how to problem solve, set/achieve goals, and take ownership of learning (Agran, Blanchard, Wehmeyer, & Hughes, 2002; Palmer & Wehmeyer, 2003; Wehmeyer et al., 2000).     

While the construct of self-determination in the Western world promotes student autonomy or independence, knowledgeable teachers should promote culturally responsive practices that value and respect family beliefs and systems (Frankland et al., 2004; Powers, 2005; Zhang, Landmark, Grenweige, & Montoya, 2010).  Teachers must model respect for parental cultural differences and the impact parents have on the promotion of self-determination behaviors in students with disabilities (Zhang, 2005).

References

• Agran, M., Blanchard, C., & Wehmeyer, M. L. (2000). Promoting transition goals and self- determination through student self-directed learning: The self-determined learning model of  instruction. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 35, 351-364.
• Agran, M., Blanchard, C., Wehmeyer, M. L., & Hughes, C. (2002). Increasing the problem- solving skills of students with developmental disabilities participating in general education. Remedial and Special Education, 23, 279-285.
  Agran, M., Cavin, M., Wehmeyer, M. L., & Palmer, S. (2006). Participation of students with  moderate to severe disabilities in the general curriculum: The effects of the self-determined  learning model of instruction. Research & Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 31, 230-241.
• Agran, M., & Krupp, M. (2011). Providing choice making in employment programs: The   beginning or end of self-determination? Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 46(4), 565-575.
• Agran, M., & Wehmeyer, M. (2005). Teaching problem solving to students with mental retardation. In M. L. Wehmeyer & M. Agran (Eds.), Mental retardation and intellectual   disabilities teaching students using innovative and research-based strategies (pp. 255-271).  Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.
• Cook, B. G., Tankersey, M., & Harjusola-Webb, S. (2008). Evidence-based special education and professional wisdom: Putting it all together. Intervention in School and Clinic, 44, 105-  111.
• Frankland, H., Turnbull A., Wehmeyer, M., & Blackmountain, L. (2004). An exploration of the    self-determination construct and disability as it relates to the Dine’(Navajo) culture. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 39(3), 191-205.
• Geenen, S., Powers, L. E., Lopez-Vasquez, A.  (2001). Multicultural aspects of parent involvement in transition planning.  The Council for Exceptional Children, 67, 265-282.
• Glago, K. D. (2005). The effect of problem solving self-determination instruction on   elementary students with learning disabilities and emotional disabilities (Doctoral dissertation, George Mason University, 2005). Dissertation Abstracts International,
  66(02), 549.
• Grigal, M., Neubert, D. A., Moon, M. S., & Graham, S. (2003). Self-determination for  students with disabilities: Views of parents and teachers. Exceptional Children, 70, 97-112.
• Hallahan, D. P., Kauffman, J. M., & Pullen, P. C. (2009). Exceptional learners an  introduction to special education. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, Pub. L. 108-466.
• Konrad, M., Trela, K., & Test, D. W. (2006). Using IEP goals and objectives to teach paragraph writing to high school studnets with physical and cognitive disabilities. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 41, 111-124.
• No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107-110, 115 Stat. 1425 (2002).
• Palmer, S. B., & Wehmeyer, M, L. (2002). A teacher’s guide to implementing self-determined  learning model of instruction early elementary version. Lawrence, KS: The Beach Center o on Disability.
• Palmer, S. B., & Wehmeyer, M. L. (2003). Promoting self-determination in early elementary   school. Remedial and Special Education, 24, 115-126.
• Powers, L. (2005). Self-determination by individuals with severe-disabilities: Limitations  or excuses. Research & Practice for Persons with Disabilities, 30(3), 168-172.
• Ward, M. J. (2005). An historical perspective of self-determination in special education: Acccomplishments and challenges. Research & Practice for Persons with Severe  Disabilities, 30, 108-112.
• Wehman, P. (2006). Life beyond the classroom. Baltimore: MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
• Wehmeyer, M. L., Agran, M., & Hughes, C. (1998). Teaching self-determination to students with disabilities. Baltimore: MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
• Wehmeyer, M. L., Gragoudas, S., & Shogren, K. (2006). Self-determination, student involvement, and leadership development. In P. Wehman, Life beyond the classroom  transition strategies for young people with disabilities (pp. 41-69). Baltimore, MD: Paul H.  Brookes Publishing Co.
• Wehmeyer, M. L., Palmer, S. B., Agran, M., Mithaug, D. E., & Martin, J. E. (2000). Promoting causal agency: The self-determined learning model of instruction. Exceptional Children, 66, 439-453.
• Wehmeyer, M. L., Shogren, K. A., Smith, T. E.C., Zager, D., & Simpson, R. (2010). Research-based principles and practices for educating students with autism: Self-determination and social interactions. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 45(4), 475-486.
• Zhang, D. (2005). Parent practices in facilitating self-determination skills: The influences of culture, socioeconomic status, and children’s special education status. Research & Practice for Persons with Disabilities, 30(3) 154-162.
• Zhang, D. & Benz, M. (2006). Enhancing self-determination of culturally diverse students with disabilities; Current status and future directions. Focus on Exceptional Children, 38, 1-12.    
• Zhang, D., Landmark, L., Grenweige, C., & Montoya, L. (2010). Culturally diverse parents’ perspectives on self-determination. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 45(2), 175-186.